বিসমিল্লাহির রাহমানির রাহীম
A
absurdism - অবসন্নতা, পতন হওয়া
The philosophy stating
that the efforts of man to find meaning in the Universe will ultimately fail because no such
meaning exists (at least in relation to man). Absurdism is related to existentialism, though should not be confused with it, nor
with nihilism.
Any system of thought
that denies the causal nexus and maintains that events succeed one another
haphazardly or by chance (not in the mathematical but in the popular sense).
In metaphysics, accidentalism denies the doctrine that
everything occurs or results from a definite cause. In this connection it is
synonymous with tychism (ruxi,
chance), a term used by Charles Sanders Peirce for the theories that make chance an objective factor in
the process of the Universe.
The philosophy that
denies the reality of the Universe, seeing it as ultimately illusory, and only
the infinite Unmanifest Absolute as real. In contrast to pantheism, acosmism begins with the recognition that
there is only one Reality, which is infinite, non-dual, blissful, etc. Yet the
phenomenal reality of which humans are normally aware is none of these things;
it is in fact just the opposite—i.e., dualistic, finite, full of suffering and
pain, and so on. And since the Absolute is the only reality, that means that
everything that is not Absolute cannot be real. Thus, according to this
viewpoint, the phenomenal dualistic world is ultimately an illusion
("Maya" to use the technical Indian term), irrespective of the apparent
reality it possesses at the mundane or empirical level.
A loosely defined
movement in art and literature popular in later 19th-century Britain which held that art does not have any
didactic purpose (it need only be beautiful), and that life should imitate art.
The main characteristics of the movement were suggestion rather than statement,
sensuality, massive use of symbols, and synaesthetic effects – that is,
correspondence between words, colors, and music.
The philosophical view
that encompasses both atheism and agnosticism. Due to definitional variance, an agnostic
atheist does not believe in God or gods and by extension holds true that
"the existence and nonexistence of deities is currently unknown and may be
absolutely unknowable", or that "knowledge of the existence and
nonexistence of deities is irrelevant or unimportant", or that
"abstention from claims of knowledge of the existence and nonexistence of
deities is optimal". Contrast agnostic
theism.
The philosophical view
that encompasses both theism and agnosticism. An agnostic theist is one who views that
the truth
value of claims
regarding the existence of God or gods is unknown or inherently
unknowable, but still chooses to believe in God or gods in spite of this.
Contrast agnostic
atheism.
The philosophical view
that the truth
values of certain
claims — particularly theological claims regarding the existence of God, gods, or deities — are unknown, inherently unknowable, or
incoherent, and therefore irrelevant to life. Agnosticism itself, in both its strong
(explicit) and weak (implicit) forms, is necessarily neither an atheist nor a theist position, though an agnostic person may
also be either an atheist, a theist, or one who endorses neither position.
The belief that people
have a moral obligation to serve others or the
"greater good". It is generally opposed to the concepts of
self-interest and egoism.
A Latin phrase that may be translated as
"love of fate" or "love of one's fate". It is used to
describe an attitude in which one sees everything that happens in one's life,
including suffering and loss, as good or, at the very least, necessary, in
that they are among the facts of one's life and existence, so they are always
necessarily there whether one likes them or not. Moreover, amor fati is
characterized by a passive acceptance of the events or situations that occur in
one's life.[3]
The political position
of any of a number of views and movements which advocate the absence or
elimination of rulership or government. Other than being opposed to the state, there is no single defining position that
all anarchists hold. Compare and contrast libertarianism.
A philosophy based on
the idea of individual sovereignty, and a prohibition against initiatory coercion and fraud. It sees the only just basis for law as arising from private
property norms and an
unlimited right of contract between sovereign individuals. From this basis,
anarcho-capitalism rejects the state as an unjustified monopolist and
aggressor against sovereign individuals, and embraces anti-statist laissez-faire capitalism. Anarcho-capitalists would aim to
protect individual liberty and property by replacing a government monopoly,
which is involuntarily funded through taxation, with private, competing
businesses.
An anarchist critique of the origins and progress of
civilization. Primitivists argue that the shift from hunter-gatherers to agricultural subsistence gave rise to social stratification, coercion, and alienation. They advocate a return to
non-"civilized" ways of life through deindustrialisation,
abolition of division of labour or specialization, and abandonment of technology.
A form of anarchism
that allies itself with syndicalism, that is, with labor
unions, as a force for
revolutionary social change. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to replace capitalism
and the state with a democratically worker-managed means of production. They
seek to abolish the wage system and most forms of private property.
"Animism"
has been applied to many different philosophical systems. This includes Aristotle's view of the relation of soul and body held
also by the stoics and scholastics. On the other hand, monadology (Leibniz) has also been described as animistic. The
name is most commonly applied to vitalism,
which makes life, or life and mind, the directive principle in evolution and
growth, holding that life is not merely mechanical but that there is a
directive force that guides energy without altering its amount. An entirely
different class of ideas, also termed animistic, is the belief in the world
soul, held by Plato, Schelling and others. Lastly, in discussions of
religion, "animism" refers to the belief in indwelling souls or
spirits, particularly so-called "primitive" religions that consider
everything inhabited by spirits.
Also called homocentrism.
The practice,
conscious or otherwise, of regarding the existence and/or concerns of human
beings as the central
fact of the Universe. This is similar, but not identical, to the practice of
relating all that happens in the universe to the human experience. To clarify,
the first position concludes that the fact of human existence is the point of
universal existence; the latter merely compares all activity to that of
humanity, without making any teleological conclusions.
A form of personification involving the attribution of human
characteristics and qualities to non-human beings, objects, or natural
phenomena. Animals, forces of nature, and unseen or unknown authors of chance are
frequent subjects of anthropomorphosis. Two examples are the attribution of a
human body or of human qualities generally to God (or the gods), and creating
imaginary persons who are the embodiment of an abstraction such as Death, Lust,
War, or the Four Horsemen of the
Apocalypse. Anthropomorphism is
similar to prosopopoeia (adopting the persona of another
person).[4]
A philosophical
position that assigns a negative value to birth. Antinatalists argue that
people should refrain from procreation because it is morally bad.
In theology, the idea that members of a particular
religious group are under no obligation to obey the laws of ethics or morality as presented by religious authorities.
Antinomianism is the polar opposite of legalism, the notion that obedience to a code of religious law is
necessary for salvation. The term has become a point of contention among opposed
religious authorities. Few groups or sects explicitly call themselves
"antinomian", but the charge is often levelled by some sects against
competing sects.
Any position involving
either the denial of the objective reality of entities of a certain type or the
insistence that humans should be agnostic about their real existence. Thus, people
may speak of anti-realism with respect to other minds, the past, the
future, universals, mathematical entities (such as natural
numbers), moral
categories, the material world,
or even thought.
The philosophical
tradition that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle and the Peripatetic school. Sometimes contrasted by critics with the rationalism and
idealism of Plato,
Aristotelianism is understood by its proponents as critically developing
Plato's theories. Most particularly, Aristotelianism brings Plato's ideals down
to Earth as goals and goods internal to natural species that are realized in
activity. This is the characteristically Aristotelian idea of teleology.
A school of soteriological thought in Protestant Christian theology founded by the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius.
Arminianism is closely related to Calvinism (or Reformed theology), and the two
systems share both their histories and many doctrines in common.
A way of life
characterised by an austere existence that refrains from worldly
pleasures. Those who practice ascetic lifestyles often perceive their practices
as virtuous and pursue them to achieve greater spirituality. In a more cynical context, asceticism may
connote some form of self-mortification, ritual punishment of the body, or
harsh renunciation of pleasure, though the word itself does not necessarily
imply a negative connotation.
The view that human
beings are to be held responsible for their actions even if determinism is true.[5]
A political project
where "human welfare and liberty are both best served when as many of the
affairs of a society as possible are managed by voluntary and democratically
self-governing associations".[6] Associationalism "gives priority to
freedom in its scale of values, but it contends that such freedom can only be
pursued effectively if individuals join with their fellows"[6]
The absence of belief
in the existence of God or gods, thus contrasting with theism; a condition of being without theistic
beliefs. This definition includes both those who assert that there are no gods
and those who maintain no beliefs at all regarding the existence of gods.
However, narrower definitions often only qualify the former as atheism, with
the latter falling under the more general (but rarely used) term nontheism.
The theory that all
objects in the Universe are composed of very small, indestructible elements called atoms. (This is the case for the Western [i.e.,
Greek] theories of atomism. Buddhists also have well-developed theories of
atomism, which involve momentary, or non-eternal, atoms, that flash in and out
of existence).
An organization or a state that enforces strong, and sometimes
oppressive measures against those in its sphere of influence, generally without
attempts at gaining their consent and often not allowing feedback on its
policies. In an authoritarian state, citizens are subject to state authority in
many aspects of their lives, including many that other political philosophies would see as matters of personal choice. There are various
degrees of authoritarianism; even very democratic and liberal states will show
authoritarianism to some extent, for example in areas of national security.
Also called surrealist
automatism.
An artistic technique
of spontaneous writing, drawing, or the like that is practiced without
conscious aesthetic or moral self-censorship.
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